Теоретическая фонетика английского языка.

Билет № 1

Компоненты интонации:

- Мелодика: ведущая роль в различении коммуникативных высказываний, изменение в направлении движения голосового тона.

- Темп: выражение различной степени важности высказываний, эмоциональное настроение. Темп ускоряется при передаче бурных эмоций и замедляется при подавленном состоянии.

- Пауза: делят речевой поток на отдельные единицы – делимитативная функция. Средство объединения частей высказывания в единое целое. Роль экспрессивного выделения слова, как до него так и после. Темпоральный компонент интонации. Интонация ассоциируется, прежде всего, со звуком, участием голоса.

- Громкость (интенсивность): определение семантического центра в звучащих текстах (менее значимые части высказывания произносятся с пониженной громкостью), членение речевого потока. Зависит не только от силы звука, но и от высоты (частоты основного тона) и долготы (длительности).

- Качество голоса (тембр): различные тональные изменения голоса. Постоянные индивидуальные особенности голоса говорящего, а соответственно они считают, что качество голоса не может являться предметом изучения лингвистики. Другие исследователи относят качество голоса к области эмоционального.

- Фразовое ударение: организующая, цементирующая роль, ритмообразующая функция, выделительная функция. Просодический признак.

- Ритм: средство эмоционального воздействия на слушающего, организующая роль. Способствует выражению смысловых отношений. Формируется из единиц сложных воспринимаемых качеств, мелодики, темпа, паузы, громкости, качества голоса фразовой акцентуации. Чередование ударных слогов примерно через равные промежутки времени.

Просодическое средство.

Каждому компоненту интонации должно соответствовать изначальное субстанциональное просодическое начало – частота основного тона, интенсивность, длительность, спектр, отсутствие речевого сигнала. При отсутствии той характеристики то или иное фонетическое явление относим не к компонентам интонации (просодическим средствам), а к просодическим признакам.

Под фразовой интонацией понимается сложное единство взаимосвязанных между собой просодических средств (компонентов интонации – мелодики, громкости, темпа, паузы, качества голоса), а также просодических признаков (фразовой акцентуации и ритма), функционирующих в фразе и передающих различные интеллектуальные (логические) и модально-эмоциональные отношения.

Phonological and non-phonological features:

A phoneme can only perform its distinctive function if it is opposed to another phoneme (or to no sound) in the same position. Such an opposition is called distinctive , or phonological. The classification is based on the number of distinctive articulatory features underlying the opposition (single, double, triple, multiple). Establishment of the phonemic system of a language is actually the establishment of all the single phonological oppositions existing in it.

Each sound is characterized by a number of features, some of them are relevant (значимые)(distinctive), others are irrelevant (incidental). Relevant features are affected by phonetic context. Irrelevant may be of two kinds: - indispensable (обязательный), (they are always present at allophones), - incidental (случайный).

Relevant

- the type of obstruction (occlusive/constrictive, plosive/fricative/affricate/nasal)

- the active organ (labial, bilabial, labio-dental/lingual/glottal)

- the force of articulation, work of local cords (fortis/lenis)

Irrelevant

- two foci

- the shape of narrow (oral, nasal, lateral articulation)

- place of obstruction (пассивный орган)

- presense or absense of voice

- aspiration

- palatalisation

In the system of English vowels the only relevant feature is the position of the tongue (ряд, подъем).

Билет № 2

Each language has a limited number of sound-types, that are shared by all the speakers of the language and are linguistically important because they distinguish meaning or meaningful units, differentiate words or their grammatical forms – phonemes.

The phoneme has several aspects and functions and it’s very difficult to give a formal definition n a single sentence. The segmental phoneme is the smallest (further indivisible into smaller consecutive segments) language unit (sound type) that exists in the speech of all the members of a given language community as such speech sounds which are capable of distinguishing one word from another word of the same language or one grammatical form of a word from another grammatical form of the same word.

Speech sounds can perform this distinctive function only when they are opposed to each other or to no sound in one and the same position (phonetic context, environment).

The actual speech sounds pronounced by the speaker or reader are variants, allophones (the actual speech sounds) of phonemes – are incapable of differentiating words or the grammatical forms of one and the same word (eight/alveolar-eighth/dental). Differ from each other in some degree. With the exception of free variants – no variant can normally occur in the position in which any other variant occurs, they are in complementary distribution (дополнительная дистрибуция). They are divided into:

principal (typical)

Is free from the influence of neighboring speech sounds

It has the greatest number of articulatory features

subsidiary

Combinatory (assimilation, accommodation, adaptation)

Positional – in definite positions are used traditionally (clear-dark variant /l/ in RP and GA)

The behavior of allophones in phonetic context, their ability to occur in certain definite positions – distribution .

- Contrastive (конт р астная)- allophones of different phonemes occur in the same position distinguishing the meaning of different words (bad/mad)

- Complimentary(дополнительная )- allophones of one and the same phoneme never occur in identical positions (clear-dark /l/)

- free varianrs (свободное варьирование )- allophones of one and the same phoneme which do occur in the same position but are incapable of differentiating meaning.

The phoneme is a dialectical unity of its three aspects reflected in its definition (aspects ):

- material, real and objective – it exists in the form of concrete variant (Daniel Jones “a family of sound”)

- abstractional and generalized character (Baudouin de Courtenay mentalist view , «психический эквивалент звука», the phoneme is regarded as a physical image of a sound or one common to several sounds; Хомский, Трубецкой, Halle, Jackobson, Hejemslev).

- functional – discriminatory (разлчительная)

The objective reality of the phoneme was denied by American linguists (Twaddel)

Constitutive (make up more complicated units) and recognitive (identificatory), distinctive (смыслоразличительная) functions (Васильев)

materialistic conception – Щерба

The difference between RP and GA (consonsnts)

Билет № 12

Phonological analysis:

The two main problems:

the establishment of the phonemic inventory for a language (буквы, что фонема, что аллофон)

Methods:

Distributional – is based on the phonological rule, that different phonemes can occur in one and the same position, while allophones of one and the same phoneme occur in different positions (cat-rat/ cat-skate). It’s possible to establish the phonemic status of any sound just by contrasting it with the other sound without knowing the meaning of the words.

Semantic – attaches great importance to meaning. It’s based on the assumption that a phoneme can distinguish words only when opposed to another phoneme or zero in an identical phonetic context (ask”0”-asks). Pairs of words differing only in one sound are called minimal pairs.

the establishment of the inventory of phonologically relevant elements for a given language.

L. Blomfield (American descriptive linguist) considered it impossible to identify the phonemes of a language without recourse to meaning in the ordinary sense of word.

Great phonemic dissimilarity – entirely or greatly different sounds, such as a vowel and a consonant cannot be allophones of the same phoneme.

Conditioned allophonic similarity – the more or less similar sounds which are at the same time more or less different, are allophones of the same phoneme if the difference between them is clearly due to the influence of purely external phonetic factors, such as neighbouring sounds, stress, etc..

Билет № 13

В самом общем виде интонация может быть определена как сложное единство взаимосвязанных между собой просодических явлений, способных выражать различные интеллектуальные, логические и модально-эмоциональные отношения. Интонация и просодия связаны между собой самым тесным образом, но тем не менее это разные объекты.

Просодия – постоянные сверхсегментные свойства речи (частота основного тона, интенсивность, длительность, громкость (сила, амплитуда); синоним интонации (учение о принципах и средствах членения речи и соединения расчлененных частей, таких как повышение и понижение основного тона (мелодия), расстановка более и менее сильных ударений (динамика), относительное ускорение и замедление речи (темп) и разрыв произнесения (паузы). Так что просодия некотором смысле уже является интонацией. Просодия – явление субстанциональное, то есть состоящее из материальных средств звучащей речи: частоты основного тона, интенсивности, длительности (акустический уровень). Считаем, что следует также учитывать и такой акустический показатель, как отсутствие речевого сигнала, что на уровне восприятия соответствует перерыву в звучании.

Просодические средства не накладываются на сегментные единицы, но заключены в самих звуках. Поэтому понятие просодии входит в спектр , который является примарной акустической характеристикой отдельно произносимого звука и сопутствующей акустической характеристикой слога, синтагмы, фразы и т.д.

Просодия и интонация состоят из одного и того же «строительного материала» - частоты основного тона, интенсивности, длительности, а также спектра и такого показателя, как отсутствие речевого сигнала. На уровне восприятия указанные параметры соотносятся со следующими понятиями: высота тона/ мелодика, сила/громкость, долгота/темп, тембр/качество голоса, перерыв в звучании/пауза. Prosody and intonation are similar because they are composed of the same phonetic phenomena. But on the other hand they are different and the difference lies in their sphere of their usage.

Просодия является в определенном смысле понятием более емким и широким, чем интонация, поскольку она организует самые разные звуковые последовательности (от слога до целого текста). Термин же «интонация» применим к речевым единицам, не меньшим синтагмы. Prosody may be applied to both smaller units (syllable, rhythmic group, text, phrase) and larger units. The notion of prosody is larger than the notion of intonation, but prosody only organizes the speech and intonation is related in meaning.

Интонация в некотором отношении – явление более высокого уровня, чем просодия, так как в понятие интонации входит и содержательный аспект. Просодия же заключает в себе лишь средства организации речевых единиц. Таким образом, интонационные признаки соотносятся с абстрактным, фонологическим; просодические признаки же – с более частным, нефункциональным. Целесообразно поэтому различать термины «просодия» и «интонация» применительно к различным функциям, а именно: конститутивная (организующая речевых единиц в одно целое) и делимитативная (сегментирующая речевой поток) функции просодии и коммуникативная, модально-эмоциональная, кульминативная (тема-рематическая), синтаксическая, семантическая функции интонации . Prosody Is reasonable only in constitutive aspect of speech. It’s reasonable to apply the term intonation to the logical and emotional aspects of speech.

By prosody the majority of phoneticians mean constant physical acoustic characteristics of speech (mainly fundamental frequency, intensity, duration and also spectrum and absence of speech (pause).

Spectrum is a basis acoustic feature of a separate sound but it’s a secondary feature of a larger unit (of a syllable, phrase).

On the perceptive level these parameters are related to the following components:

Intensity- loudness / duration – tempo / spectrum – voice quality

Prosodic features – rhythm, sense stress.

All these characteristics are quite frequently called prosodic means.

Intonation is a complex unity of closely related prosodic means (components of intonation)

- melody

- loudness

- voice quality

and of prosodic features (sentence accentuation, rhuthm), which convey different intellectual (logical) modal and emotional attitudes.

Functions

Prosody:

-constitutive (structural) separate words, pronounced on the same level - normal communication is impossible/ “voice in machine” 1)integrative (связывание) 2) delimitative (расчленение) – the same words, but a different translation, because of the way we pronounce them.

- stylistic, each functional style and each function of speech has its own characteristics in melody, tempo, loudness, voice quality, pause. Official style (frequent use of the gradually descending scale, greater degree of loudness, slower tempo of speech), colloquial style (lowered degree of loudness, great number of hesitation pauses).

- aestatic, general impression from the person’s speech. Harmony (благозвучие).

- social, information about gender, age, education, the place one lives

Intonation:

- communicative, type of utterance (command, request)

- expressive:

culminative – difference between the new and the given information (theme-rheme)

highlighting – singing out words according to the degree of their semantic importance

attitutional – in order to express his attitude the speaker changes the melody, tembre of voice, loudness (I love you, Mid-Fall/Rise-Fall). Change in melody can lead to the change of the meaning of the whole utterance.

Scottish English.

English has been spoken for as long as it has been spoken in England. Some linguists say that it’s a national variant, others say that it’s a dialect. In the Highlands and Islands of northern and western Scotland, however, Gaelic is still the native language of thousands of speakers of these regions.

Incidentally a number of writers and poets like R. Burns retained their native language (Scots), although after Reformation it was gradually replaced by English.

Nowadays educated Scottish people speak a form of Scottish Standard English which grammatically and lexically is not different from English used elsewhere, but with an obvious Scottish accent. At the moment there is a strong movement in Scotland for the revival of Scots.

since Sc. English is rhotic it preserves post-vocalic /r/ (beer => /bir/; hurt => /h^rt/)

Length is not a distinctive feature in Sottish vowels (pool=pull). But in final stressed open syllables vowels are longer than elsewhere.

Monophthongs are pure, there’s no trace of diphthongization with the exceptions of /ai-i/, /au-u/, /oi/.

The RP / æ – a(a:)/ distinction doesn’t exist (hat /a/, danse /a:/)

/i/, /U/, /^/, /э/ may be central

accent /u:/ often occurs when RP has /au/ (hause /hu:s/)

/o/ and / Э u/ may not be contrasted (not=note)

do, to are pronounced as /dэ/, /tэ/

/e/ instead of /i/ (city)

Consonants:

Sc. English preserves a destinction between /hw/ and /w/ (witch)

Initial /p,t,k/ are usually non-aspirated

/r/ is most usually a flap

non-initial /t/ is always realized as aglottal stop /?/

/l/ is dark in all positions

the velar fricative /x/ occurs in number of words: loch

-ing is /in/

/h/ is present

A specific Scottish feature is the pronunciation of /θr/ as / ς r / (through)

Билет № 8

Major approaches to the form of melodic unit:

1). Contour approach (контурный подход). The most traditional and widespread is the approach worked out by the British phonetic school (Sweet, Jones, Armstrong, Ward, Kingdon, Gimbson, O’Conner). The approach is based on the assumption that the melodic of utterance is a unity of functionally independent components.

Melodic configuration is studied within a sense-group which is the smallest unit of sense in speech. In terms of its structure and function the melodic contour of a sense-group includes:

a nuclear tone – is a tone which is used within the nucleus of the utterance, that’s the highlightened part carrying maximum informational load

a scale- is the part from the fast-stressed syllable to the fast unstressed before the tone

a head – the first stressed syllable

a pre-head – the unstressed syllable before the head

The contour has two vertical parameters:

range (диапазон ) – the interval between the highest and the lowest pitch in the sense-group (narrow, wide)

register – is height of pitch range (high, middle, low)

According to the British school: The melodic from of a sense group is a contour having both vertical and horizontal components each of which performs its specific function.

2). Pitch approach. According to the American phonetic school the melodic structure of a sense-group is analyzed in terms of pitches or pitch levels.

Pitch levels are distinctively relevant and are called pitch phonemes. Meaning is ascribed to a sequence of pitches such a sequence is called an intonation contour .

They distinguish 4 pitch levels:

Mid level (2) – quiet, unemotional

Extra high (4) – strong emotions

An utterance must have the first 3 pitch levels. Inside each pitch bond here can be slight melodic ups and downs, which are considered semantically irrelevant. (I’m going home)

The two schools are hardly as incompatible (несовместимы) as it may seem on the face of it. The contour theory cannot ignore the significance of pitches (Low Fall, High Fall). On the other hand in American intonation pitch levels make up linear contours (уровни выстраиваются в линейный контур).

Northern Ireland English.

Naturally the pronunciation of these areas (Southern Ireland, Northern Ireland) retains features of western parts of England. But Northern Ireland is heavy Scots-influenced (as large numbers of settlers came there from the southwest of Scotland from the 17 th century.

- the vowel system is similar to that of the Scottish accent: post-vocalic retroflex frictionless sonorant /r/ being used as in Scotland.

in words like “bay, say” the vowel is monophthong /e/, preconsonantly it may be the diphthong of the type /eэ – iэ/ “gate”

/i/, /u/ are fairy central (pool /pul/, meet /mi:t/, meat /mi:t/, fur /fir/, bird /bird/)

/o:/ and /o/ contrast only before /p,t,k/ (nose /noz/, pour /por/, pole /pol/)

/ai/, /au/ are very variable, there isno /ei/ (tide, bout /baut/)

realization of /a:/ may vary considerably (hat /hat/, danse /dans/)

Consonants:

/l/ is mainly clear

intervocalic /t/ is often a voiced flap /d/ (city /`sidi/)

between vowels /  / may be lost (mother /`mo:Эr/

/h/ is present

Билет № 3

Rhythm – is understood as discipline of periodicity in time and space. We find rhythm everywhere (succession of seasons, breathing, walking). Speech production is closely connected with breathing and breathing is rhythmical. Any type of speech activity is characterized by rhythm because it is connected with breathing.

According to the most general definition of rhythm there must be in speech a similar unit (event), which is repeated casually at equal periods of time. It’s not the same in different languages. Two types of languages can be singled out in this respect.

languages with syllable-timed rhythm (слогочитающий ритм) – any syllable both stressed or unstressed is repeated in equal period of time (French, Spanish, Italian, Hungarian, Hindi)

languages with stressed-timed rhythm (такто-считающий ритм) – only stressed syllables are pronounced at equal periods of time (German, Russian, English, Arabic, Modern Greek)

English has stressed-timed rhythm. It implies that it has stressed syllables tend to occur at relatively equal period of time and it does not matter whether they are separated by unstressed syllable or not. The stress-timed theory says that the time period from each stressed syllable to the next one tends to be the same irrespective of the number of syllables that separate. We can define English speech rhythm as a regular recurrence of stressed syllables. This is traditional approach to rhythm which is most typical for the British phonetic school.

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Chapter I. The Functional Aspect of Speech Sounds ...................... 16

1.1. The Phoneme ........ ........................ ............................... 17

1.1.1. The definition of the phoneme ..................................... 17

1.1.2. The phoneme as a unity ofthrec aspects ....................... 18

1.1.3. Phonological and phonetic mistakes in pronunciation .... 23

1.2. Transcription ................................................................. 24

1.3. Main Trends in the Phoneme Theory ............................. 25

1.4. Methods of Phonological Analysis ................................. 28

1.4.1. The aim of phonological analysis ..................................
1.4.2. Distributional method of phonological analysis ............
1.4.3. Semantically distributional method ofphonological

Analysis ........................................................................
1.4.4. Methods of establishing the phonemic status of speech

Sounds in weakpositions. Morphonology ......................

1. 5. The System of English Phonemes .................................. 34

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1.5.1. The system of consonants .............................................
1.5.2. The system of vowels ....................................................
1.5.3. Modifications of sounds in connected speech ...............
1.5.3.1. Modifications of consonants ...........................
1.5.3.2. Modifications of vowels ...................................

Summary ...................................................................... 48

Chapter n. Syllabic Structure of English Words
2.1. The Phenomenon of the Syllable
2.2. Syllable Formation
2.3. Syllable Division (Phonotactics)
2.4. Functional A"lpect ofthe Syllable
Summary

Chapter III. Word Stress ................................................................... 57

3.1. Definition. The Nature of Stress. ....................... ............ 57

3.2. English Word Stress. Production and Perception ............ 59

3.3. Degrees ofWord Stress .................................................. 60

3.4. Placement ofWord Stress .............................................. 61

3.5. Tendencies in the Placement of Word Stress ................... 64

3.6. Functions ofWord Stress ............................................... 65

Summary ...................................................................... 66

Chapter rv. Intonation..................................................................... 68

Definition ofIntonation ................................................ 68

4.2. Components of Intonation ............................................ 70

5.2. Stylistic Modifications of Speech Sounds ..................... 114

Stylistic Use of Intonation
116

5.3.1. Phonostyles and their registers
118

5.3.2. Infonnational style
118

A) spheres of discourse
120

B) informational texts (reading)
c) informational monologues (speaking)
123

Infonnational dialogues
133

E) press reporting and broadcasting
137

5.3.3. Academic style
140

5.3.4. Publicistic style
144

5.3.6. Conversational style
156

4.3. Intonation Pattern as the Basic Unit of I.n.tonation ......... 72

4.4. Notation ....................................................................... 78

Chapter VI. Social and Territorial Vctrieties of English ..................... 158

4.5. Functions ofIntonation ................................................ 79

4.5. L Communicative function as the basic function

Of intonati on
79

4.5.2. Distinctive function
81

4.5.3. Organising function
85

4.5.4. Intonation in discourse
88

4.5.5. Pragmatic function
93

4.5.6. Rhetorical function
95

4.6. Rhythm
........... 96

4.6.1. Speech rhythm. Definition. Typology ........................... 96

4.6.2. Rhythmic group as the basic unit ofrhYlhm .................. 98

4.6.3. Rhythm in different types of discourse .......................... 98

4.6.4. Functions of rhythm .................................................. 101

Summary .................................................................... l02

6.1. Social Phonetics and Dialectology ............................... 158

Chapter V. Phonostylistics ........... ......... ......................... ....... ........ 105

5.1. The Problems ofPhonostylistics ..................................
5.1.1. Phonostylistics as a bmnch of phonetics .....................
5. 1.2. Extmlinguistic situation and its components ..... ..........
5.1.3. Style-fonning factors .................................................
5.1.4. Classification of phonetic styles .................. ................

6.2. Spread of English ........................................................ 162

6.3. English-based Pronunciation Standards of English ......
6.3.1. British English ...........................................................
6.3.2. Received pronunciation .............................................
6.3.3. Changes in the standard .............................................
6.3.4. Regional non-RP accents of England .........................
6.3.5. \\elsh English .............................................................
6.3.6. Scottish English .........................................................
6.3.7. Northern Ireland English ...........................................
6.4. American-based Pronunciation Standards of English ...
6.4.1. General American
Summary
References

INTRODUCTION

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Phonetics as a Linguistic Discipline
Divisions and Branches of Phonetics
Methods of Phonetic Investigation
Phonetics and Other Disciplines
Spheres of Practical Application

1. Phonetics as a Linguistic Discipline
This book is aimed at future teachers of English. The teachers of a for
eign language are definitely aware of the existence of phonetics. They are
always being told that it is essential that they should be skilful phoneticians.
The reaction may be different. Some teachers meet it with understanding.
Some protest that it is not in their power for various reasons to become pho
neticians, others deny that it is really necessary.
"Is it in fact necessary for a language teacher to be a phonetician? I
would reply that all language teachers willy-nilly are phoneticians. It is not
possible, for practical purposes, to teach a foreign language to any type of
learner, for any purpose, by any method, without giving some attention to
pronunciation. And any attention to pronunciation is phonetics." (Aber
crombie, 1956: 28)
What does phonetics study? Phonetics is concerned with the human
noises, by which the thought is actualized or given audible shape: the nature
of these noises, their combinations, and their functions in relation to
meaning. Phonetics studies the sound system ofthe language, i. e. segmen
tal phonemes, word stress, syllabic structure and intonation. It is primarily
concerned with expression level. However, phonetics takes the content
el into consideration too. Only meaningful sound sequences are regarded as
speech, and the science ofphonetics , in principle at least, is concerned only
with such sounds produced by a human vocal apparatus as are, or may be,
carriers of organized information of language. In other words, phonetics is
concerned both with the expression level ofphonetic units and their ability
to carry meaning. No kind oflinguistic study can be made without constant
consideration of the material and functional levels.
It follows from this that phonetics is a basic branch of linguistics; nei
ther linguistic theory nor linguistic practice can do without phonetics, and

No language description is complete without phonetics, the science con
cerned with the spoken medium oflanguage. That is why phonetics claims
to be of equal importance with grammar and lexicology.

2. Divisions and Branches of Phonetics
Traditionally phonetics is divided into general phonetics which studies
the complex nature of phonetic phenomena and formulates phonetic laws
and principles and special phonetics which is concerned with the phonetic
structure ofa particular language. Admittedly, phonetic theories worked out
by general phonetics are based on the data provided by special phonetics
while special phonetics relies on the ideas of general phonetics to interpret
phonetic phenomena of a particular language.
Special phonetics can be subdivided into descriptive and historical. Spe
cial descriptive phonetics studies the phonetic structure ofthe language syn
chronically, while historical phonetics looks at it in its historical develop
ment, diachronically. Historical phonetics is part of the history of the
language. The study ofthe historical development ofthe phonetic system of
a language helps to lmderstand its present and predict its future.
Another important division of phonetics is into segmental phonetics,
which is concerned with individual sounds (1. e. "segments" of speech) and
suprasegmental phonetics whose domain is the larger units of connected
speech: syllables, words, phrases and text.
Figure 1
phonetics

Segmental
phonetics

Suprasegmental
phonetics

Phonetics has two aspects: on the one hand, phonology, the study of the
functional aspect of phonetic units, and on the other, the study of the sub
stance of phonetic units.
Before analysing the linguistic function of phonetic units we need to
know how the vocal mechanism acts in producing oral speech and what

Methods are applied in investigating the material form of the language, in
other words its substance.
Human speech is the result ofa highly complicated series of events. The
formation of the message takes place at a linguistic level, i. e. in the brain of
the speaker; this stage may be called psychological. The message formed in the
brain is transmitted along the nervous system to the speech organs. Therefore
we may say that the human brain controls the behaviour of the articulating
organs which results in producing a particular pattern ofspeech sounds. This
second stage may be called physiological. The movements of the speech ap
paratus disturb the air stream thus producing sound waves. Consequently the
third stage may be called physical or acoustic. Further, any communication
requires a listener, as well as a speaker. So the last stages are the reception of
the sound waves by the listener"s hearing physiological apparatus, the trans
missiou of the spoken message through the nervous system to the brain and
the linguistic interpretation ofthe information conveyed.
Although not a single one ofthe organs involved in the speech mecha
nism is used only for speaking we can for practical purposes use the term
"organs of speech", meaning the organs which are active, directly or indi
rectly, in the process ofspeech sound production.
In accordance with their linguistic function the organs ofspeech may be
grouped as follows:
The respiratory or power mechanism furnishes the flow of air which is
the first requisite for the production of speech sounds. This mechanism is
formed by the lungs, the wind-pipe and the bronchi. The air-stream ex
pelled from the lungs provides the most usual source of energy which is
regulated by the power mechanism. Regulating the force ofthe air-wave the
lungs produce variations in the intensity of speech sounds. Syllabic pulses
and dynamic stress, both typical of English, are directly related to the be
haviour of the muscles which activate this mechanism.
From the lungs through the wind-pipe the air-stream passes to the up
per stages ofthe vocal tract. First ofall it passes to the larynx containing the
vocal cords. The opening between the vocal cords is known as the glottis.
The function of the vocal cords consists in their role as a vibrator set in mo
tion by the air-stream sent by the lungs. The most important speech func
tion of the vocal cords is their role in the production of voice. The effect of
voice is achieved when the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate
when subjected to the pressure of air passing from the lungs. The vibration
is caused by compressed air forcing an opening ofthe glottis and the follow
ing reduced air-pressure permitting the vocal cords to come together.

2. Divisions and Branches of Phonetics

The height of the speaking voice depends on the frequency ofthe vibra
tions. The more frequently the vocal cords vibrate the higher the pitch is.
The typical speaking voice of a woman is higher than that ofa man because
the vocal cords of a woman vibrate more frequently. We are able to vary the
rate of the vibration thus producing modifications of the pitch component
of intonation. More than that. We are able to modify the size of the puff of
air which escapes at each vibration of the vocal cords, i. e. we can alter the
amplitude of the vibration which causes changes of the loudness of the
sound heard by the listener.
From the larynx the air-stream passes to supraglottal cavities, i. e. to the
pharynx, the mouth and the nasal cavities. The shapes of these cavities
modify the note produced in the larynx thus giving rise to particular speech
sounds.
There are three branches of phonetics each corresponding to a different
stage in the communication process described above. Each ofthese branch
es uses a special set of methods.
The branch of phonetics that studies the way in which the air is set in
motion, the movements of the speech organs and the coordination of these
movements in the production of single sounds and trains ofsounds is called
articulatory phonetics. Articulatory phonetics is concerned with the way
speech sounds are produced by the organs of speech, in other words the
mechanisms of speech production.
Acoustic phonetics studies the way in which the air vibrates between the
speaker"s mouth and the listener"s ear, in other words, the sound wave.
Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the physical properties of speech
sounds and uses special technologies to measure speech signals.
The branch of phonetics investigating the perception process is known
as auditory phonetics. Its interests lie more in the sensation ofhearing which
is brain activity, than in the physiological working of the ear or the nervous
activity between the ear and the brain. The means by which we discriminate
sounds - quality, sensation of pitch, loudness, length, are relevant here.
branch of phonetics is of special interest to anyone who teaches or
studies pronunciation.
As it was mentioned above, phoneticians cannot act only as describ
ers and

Учебник представляет собой нормативный курс фонетики английского языка. Цель учебника - формирование навыков правильного английского произношения и профессиональной ориентации студентов, т. е. обучение студентов тому, как использовать полученные знания и умения в дальнейшей педагогической деятельности.
Учебник состоит из теоретической части, где излагаются основные моменты теории фонетики английского языка, и практической, включающей упражнения, направленные на закрепление и практическое усвоение материала.

ARTICULATION AND BREATHING PRACTICE.
In order to acquire correct pronunciation, to manipulate the organs of speech one is to be taught breathing technique. The first and the most important thing in any system of voice exercises is the formation and control of the breath. We never breathe out completely in speech. Complete exhalation takes place only in breathing exercises. In normal breathing there is some reserve breath remaining in the lungs. The exercises given below will help you to control your breath, as breath control is the keynote of all that is necessary for speaking.

The mass of air breathed in is kept in the lungs. The lungs are inclosed in the region covered by the ribs, and extending upward, they fill the chest cavity except for the space for the heart. While breathing we fill only the upper part of the lungs with air, but for speaking and singing it is necessary to fill the lower part of the lungs. This is reached with the help of the diaphragm.

CONTENTS
Introduction
Part One. The Production of Speech
Chapter I. The Organs of Speech and Their Work
Chapter II. Articulation and Breathing Practice
Part Two. The Sounds of Speech
Chapter I. Sounds and Phonemes
Vowels and Consonants
Chapter II. Consonants. Principles of Classification
Class A. Noise Consonants
Constrictive Fricative Consonants
Occlusive-Constrictive Consonants
Class B. Sonorous Consonants
Chapter III. Modification of Consonants in Connected Speech
Assimilation
Fundamental Consonant Allophones
Chapter IV. Vowels. Principles of Classification
Monophthongs
Diphthongoids
Diphthongs
Vowel Sequences
Chapter V. Modification of Vowels in Connected Speech
Reduction
Chapter VI. Strong and Weak Forms
Part Three. Syllable Structure
Chapter I. Syllable Formation
Chapter II. Syllable Division
Part Four. Word Stress
Chapter I. Manifestation of Word Stress and Its Linguistic
Function
Chapter II. The Degrees and the Position of Word Stress
Part Five. Intonation
Chapter I. Manifestation of Intonation and Its Linguistic
Function
Chapter II. Basic Intonation Patterns
Emphasis
Classification of Intonation Patterns
Intonation Patterns and Meaning
Group I. Low Fall ,
Group II. High Fall
Group III. Rise-Fall
Group IV. Low Rise
Group V. High Rise
Group VI. Fall-Rise (High Fall + Rise)
Group VII. Rise-Fall-Rise
Group VIII. Mid-Level
Chapter III. Intonation Patterns and Sentence Types
Chapter IV. Sequence of Tones
Chapter V. Sentence-Stress
Manifestation of Sentence-Stress
Types of Sentence-Stress
Chapter VI. Tempo of Speech
Chapter VII. Rhythm
Part Six. Phonostylistics
Chapter I. General Considerations
Chapter II. Stylistic Use of Intonation
Chapter III. Intonational Styles
Informational (Formal) Style
Scientific (Academic) Style
Declamatory Style
Publicistic Style
Familiar (Conversational) Style
Intonational Styles and Modification of Sounds in Connected Speech
Part Seven. Patterns of Exercises
Sounds of Speech
Syllable Structure
Word Stress
Stylistic Use of Intonation.

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